Fig. 1. Poinsettia: The Christmas flower in bloom (click image for larger view).

The poinsettia, Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd., is a member of the family Euphorbiaceae. The genusEuphorbia contains some 1,000 species. It is characterized by a single female flower, without petals and usually without sepals, surrounded by individual male flowers all enclosed in a cup-shaped structure called a cyathium. The showy red, pink, white, or bicolored portion of the plant, popularly referred to as the flower, consists of modified leaves or bracts (Fig. 1).

The poinsettia is a native plant of Mexico and originated in a rather limited region near present day Taxco. Long before the arrival of Europeans, the Aztecs of Central Mexico cultivated the plant and called it Cuetlaxochitl. Because of its brilliant color, the poinsettia was a symbol of purity to the Indians. It was highly prized by both King Netzahualcoyotl and Montezuma, but because of the high altitude climate, the plant could not be grown in their capital that is now Mexico City. The Indians used poinsettia bracts to make a reddish-purple dye. They also made a medicine for fever from the plant’s latex.

During the 17th century, a group of Franciscan priests settled near Taxco. They began to use the poinsettia in the Fiesta of Santa Pesebre, a native procession. Juan Balme, a botanist of the same period, mentioned the poinsettia plant in his writings. He described it as having large green leaves and a small flower surrounded by bracts, almost as if for protection. The bracts, he said, turned a brilliant red. Balme also found the plant flourishing on the slopes and in the valleys near Cuernavaca. Legend has it that the poinsettia became associated with Christmas because the Mexicans regarded it as symbolic of the Star of Bethlehem (62).

Fig. 2. Joel Roberts Poinsett (1779-1851) (click image forlarger view).

Poinsettias were first introduced in the United States in 1825 by Joel Roberts Poinsett (24) (Fig. 2). While serving as the first United States Ambassador to Mexico, he visited Taxco and found the flowers growing on the adjacent hillsides. Poinsett, a botanist of great ability, had some plants sent to his home in Greenville, South Carolina. They did well in his greenhouse and he distributed plants to botanical gardens and to horticultural friends, including John Bartram of Philadelphia. Bartram, in turn, supplied the plant to Robert Buist, a nurseryman who first sold the plant as Euphorbia pulcherrima, Willd. The name poinsettia, however, has remained the accepted name in English-speaking countries.

The modern era of poinsettia culture began with the introduction of the seedling cultivar Oak Leaf (Fig. 3). This cultivar was reported to have been grown originally in Jersey City, NJ, by a Mrs. Enteman in 1923. From 1923 until the early 1960s, all of the principal cultivars of commercial importance were selections or sports from this original Oak Leaf seedling. Earliest production of poinsettia as a cut flower from field-grown plants occurred in what is now Hollywood, California (Fig. 4). Early cultivars were True Red and Early Red. A shift from field-grown stock production to stock production in greenhouses occurred in the 1960s.

Fig. 3. Seedling cultivar ‘Oak Leaf,’ the progenitor of modern poinsettia cultivars (click image for larger view).

Fig. 4. Field production of poinsettia stock plants in Southern California in the mid-1930s (click image for larger view).

Recognition of shorter photoperiod in the flowering of poinsettia (32,60) was the basis for controlled pot plant production and subsequent breeding programs. “During the middle 1950’s, poinsettia breeding programs were initiated at several institutions, including the Pennsylvania State University, the University of Maryland, the USDA Research Center at Beltsville, Maryland, and by a number of commercial horticulture firms including Azalealand, Lincoln, Nebraska; Paul Ecke Ranch, Encinitas, California; Mikkelsen’s, Ashtabula, Ohio; Earl J. Small, Pinnellas Park, Florida; Yoder Brothers, Barberton, Ohio; Zieger Brothers, Hamburg, Germany; and Thormod Hegg & Son, Reistad, Norway. Dr. Robert N. Stewart, Agricultural Research Service of Beltsville, Maryland, used his genetic training to segregate desirable characteristics such as stiff stems, larger bracts, new colors, and lasting qualities. He contributed much in determining the character of mutation forms in poinsettias, and his cooperative efforts have been extremely helpful to the commercial hybridizers” (20).

Fig. 5. Paul Mikkelsen poinsettia (click image for larger view).

“With the introduction of the cultivar Paul Mikkelsen in 1963 (Fig. 5), poinsettias entered a new era. This cultivar, with stiff stems and foliage retention characteristics, provided the trade with the first longer-lasting cultivar of commercial importance” (20). The cultivar Annette Hegg Red was introduced in Norway in 1964 and was quickly followed by a number of sports. The Hegg cultivars introduced an entirely new type of multi-flowered plant to the trade because of their ability to produce from five to eight blooms from a pinch, and because of their ease of production.

In 1988 Eckespoint Lilo was introduced. This was one of the first dark leaf poinsettia cultivars that were early flowering, recovered quickly after unsleeving, and had excellent foliage retention for the consumer. This cultivar required certain cultural techniques to insure good branching. In 1992, Eckespoint Freedom was introduced. Eckespoint Freedom contained the best characteristics of Eckespoint Lilo while branching more consistently for the producers. Today there are over 100 poinsettia cultivars grown commercially, with one cultivar, Eckespoint Freedom representing over 50% of the red market worldwide and 70-75% of that market consisting of poinsettias with red bracts. One final revolution to poinsettia cultivars was the introduction of Eckespoint Winter Rose Dark Red in 1998 (Fig. 6). This cultivar was the first introduction in the “curly” family with dark red incurved bracts and deep dark green incurved foliage. (Adapted from Ecke, et al., 1990. The Poinsettia Manual [20])

Fig. 6. Eckespoint Winter Rose the first cultivar with incurved bracts and foliage (click image for larger view).

Another noted breeding program by Fischer, Hillscheid, Germany, has introduced over 34 poinsettia cultivars to the U.S.A. and Canada over the years. Cultivars of the Color Collection have excellent branching with medium green foliage and compact to medium vigorous growth. The Cortez Family has good color retention and resists epinasty after shipping. Fischer’s Early Red poinsettias consist of Galaxy RedVN, Orion RedVN, and Nova RedVN, adapted for the retail market that is discovering the attractiveness of poinsettias before the Christmas season. Early production makes these poinsettias available for the retail market in early November. The Sonora Family is a mid-season series line with dark green leaves characterized by the oak leaf-shaped foliage, V-shaped habit and exceptional branching. The Sonora Family has good color retention, abundant cyathias during and after shipping, and is available in a variety of colors. Silverstar Marble is Fischer’s newest creation in the Silverstar line. Its beautiful pink and white bicolor bracts sit above soft, green, variegated foliage (Fig. 7). Silverstar Marble has excellent branching, a uniform, compact growth habit, and flowers around the end of November.

Fig. 7. Fischer Silverstar Marble, a pink and white bicolor with variegated foliage (click image for larger view).

Today, poinsettias may be found in many different colors (Fig. 8) as well as product forms from mini poinsettias to large specimen trees and every size in between. Testimony to its success and popularity, the poinsettia is not only the most popular holiday flower, it is the number one flowering potted plant in the United States, with over 65 million plants sold nationwide in 2000 (67). In 2001, more than 120 poinsettia cultivars were under evaluation at university research stations for possible introduction in the future.

Fig. 8. Eckespoint Plum Pudding, the first poinsettia with purple bracts (click image for larger view).

Suitable for…

Bulbs are useful for adding colour to spring borders. Tulips come in all shades, from dark purple to white, and bloom at a time of year when many plants offer muted colours. Other bulbs, such as snowdrops and scillas, are some of the earliest flowering plants in the garden, brightening up the short days of very early spring.

Planting summer-flowering bulbs such as lilies and gladioli can provide dramatic, tall blooms that are scented.

Autumn-flowering bulbs, such as nerines, can brighten up the late season with unexpectedly colourful displays.

When to do it…

Autumn

         Plant spring-flowering bulbs, such as daffodils, crocus and hyacinths, preferably by the end of September

         Plant tulips in November

         Plant hardy summer-flowering bulbs, such as lilies, alliums and crocosmia, in September and October

Spring

         Plant tender summer-flowering bulbs, including gladioli, in early spring

Summer

         Plant autumn-flowering bulbs, such as nerines, by late summer

Where to plant bulbs

         Most hardy bulbs, including tulips and daffodils, prefer a warm, sunny site with good drainage as they come from areas with dry summer climates

         Bulbs from cool, moist, woodland habitats, such as Cardiocrinum, need similar garden conditions. Improve light or sandy soils with garden compost and heavy soils with compost plus grit

How to plant bulbs

Most bulbs are acquired and planted when dry, in a dormant, leafless, rootless state. Plant as soon as possible. They may flower poorly following later than recommended planting or after lengthy storage.

Planting in borders

Aim to plant in groups of at least six, as the more bulbs that are grouped together, the better the display. Typically, 25 to 50 bulbs may be needed to make an impressive show.

This method applies to spring-, summer- and autumn-flowering bulbs:

1.            Dig a hole wide and deep enough for your bulbs. Work out the planting depth by roughly measuring the bulb from base to tip and doubling or tripling this length - this figure is the rough planting depth. For example, a 5cm (2in) high bulb should be 10-15cm (4-6in) below soil level

2.            Place the bulbs in the hole with their ‘nose’, or shoot, facing upwards. Space them at least twice the bulb’s own width apart

3.            Replace the soil and gently firm with the back of a rake. Avoid treading on the soil as this can damage the bulbs

Some bulbs, such as winter aconites, bluebells and snowdrops, are thought to be best planted, moved or divided ‘in the green’, when flowering is over but they are still in leaf. However, dried bulbs are often offered and can be successful.

In containers

Most bulbs are ideal for growing in containers, but this especially suits those with large, showy flowers, such as tulips, lilies, arum lilies and alliums. Here are some tips for success:

        For bulbs that are only going to spend one season in their container, use a mix of three parts multi-purpose compost with one part grit. For long-term container displays, use three parts John Innes No 2 compost mixed with one part grit

  Plant at three times their depth and one bulb width apart

        Water bulbs regularly when in active growth, but you can reduce watering once the leaves start to die down and then through the dormant season. However, continue to check pots in winter, ensuring they do not dry out completely

  To promote good flowering next year, feed the bulbs every seven to ten days with a high-potassium fertiliser such as a liquid tomato feed. Begin feeding as soon as shoots appear, and stop feeding once the foliage starts to die down at the end of the season

If you bring pots of hardy bulbs indoors during flowering, put them in a sheltered spot outside as soon as flowering is over

“A central figure in the “green revolution”, Norman Ernest Borlaug (March 25, 1914- 2009) was born on a farm near Cresco, Iowa, to Henry and Clara Borlaug. For the past twenty-seven years he has collaborated with Mexican scientists on problems of wheat improvement; for the last ten or so of those years he has also collaborated with scientists from other parts of the world, especially from India and Pakistan, in adapting the new wheats to new lands and in gaining acceptance for their production.

In 1944 he accepted an appointment as geneticist and plant pathologist assigned the task of organizing and directing the Cooperative Wheat Research and Production Program in Mexico. This program, a joint undertaking by the Mexican government and the Rockefeller Foundation, involved scientific research in genetics, plant breeding, plant pathology, entomology, agronomy, soil science, and cereal technology. Within twenty years he was spectacularly successful in finding a high-yielding short-strawed, disease-resistant wheat.

To his scientific goal he soon added that of the practical humanitarian: arranging to put the new cereal strains into extensive production in order to feed the hungry people of the world - and thus providing, as he says, “a temporary success in man’s war against hunger and deprivation,” a breathing space in which to deal with the “Population Monster” and the subsequent environmental and social ills that too often lead to conflict between men and between nations. Statistics on the vast acreage planted with the new wheat and on the revolutionary yields harvested in Mexico, India, and Pakistan are given in the presentation speech by Mrs. Lionaes and in the Nobel lecture by Dr. Borlaug. Well advanced, also, is the use of the new wheat in six Latin American countries, six in the Near and Middle East, several in Africa.

When the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations in cooperation with the Mexican government established the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), an autonomous international research training institute having an international board of trustees and staff, Dr. Borlaug was made director of its International Wheat Improvement Program. In this capacity he has been able to realize more fully a third objective, that of training young scientists in research and production methods. From his earliest days in Mexico he has, to be sure, carried on an intern program, but with the establishment of the Center, he has been able to reach out internationally. In the last seven years some 1940 young scientists from sixteen or so countries (the figures constantly move upward) have studied and worked at the Center.” http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1970/borlaug-bio.html

“A central figure in the “green revolution”, Norman Ernest Borlaug (March 25, 1914- 2009) was born on a farm near Cresco, Iowa, to Henry and Clara Borlaug. For the past twenty-seven years he has collaborated with Mexican scientists on problems of wheat improvement; for the last ten or so of those years he has also collaborated with scientists from other parts of the world, especially from India and Pakistan, in adapting the new wheats to new lands and in gaining acceptance for their production.

In 1944 he accepted an appointment as geneticist and plant pathologist assigned the task of organizing and directing the Cooperative Wheat Research and Production Program in Mexico. This program, a joint undertaking by the Mexican government and the Rockefeller Foundation, involved scientific research in genetics, plant breeding, plant pathology, entomology, agronomy, soil science, and cereal technology. Within twenty years he was spectacularly successful in finding a high-yielding short-strawed, disease-resistant wheat.

To his scientific goal he soon added that of the practical humanitarian: arranging to put the new cereal strains into extensive production in order to feed the hungry people of the world - and thus providing, as he says, “a temporary success in man’s war against hunger and deprivation,” a breathing space in which to deal with the “Population Monster” and the subsequent environmental and social ills that too often lead to conflict between men and between nations. Statistics on the vast acreage planted with the new wheat and on the revolutionary yields harvested in Mexico, India, and Pakistan are given in the presentation speech by Mrs. Lionaes and in the Nobel lecture by Dr. Borlaug. Well advanced, also, is the use of the new wheat in six Latin American countries, six in the Near and Middle East, several in Africa.

When the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations in cooperation with the Mexican government established the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), an autonomous international research training institute having an international board of trustees and staff, Dr. Borlaug was made director of its International Wheat Improvement Program. In this capacity he has been able to realize more fully a third objective, that of training young scientists in research and production methods. From his earliest days in Mexico he has, to be sure, carried on an intern program, but with the establishment of the Center, he has been able to reach out internationally. In the last seven years some 1940 young scientists from sixteen or so countries (the figures constantly move upward) have studied and worked at the Center.” http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1970/borlaug-bio.html